The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
Volume 113, Issue 5 , Pages 805-819 , May 2004

Update on food allergy

  • Hugh A Sampson, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationReprint requests: Hugh A. Sampson, MD, Department of Pediatrics, Box 1198, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574.

Received 15 March 2004 ,Revised 15 March 2004 ,Accepted 16 March 2004.

References 

  1. Sampson HA. Food Allergy (Part 1: immunopathogenesis and clinical disorders). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103:717–728
  2. Sampson HA. Food Allergy (Part 2: diagnosis and management). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103:981–999
  3. Munoz-Furlong A, Sampson HA, Sicherer SH. Prevalence of self-reported seafood allergy in the U.S. [abstract] J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113(suppl):S100
  4. Johansson S, Hourihane JO'B, Bousquet J, Bruijnzeel-Koomen C, Dreborg S, Haahtela T, et al.  A revised nomenclature for allergy. An EAACI position statement from the EAACI nomenclature task force. Allergy. 2001;56:813–824
  5. Bock SA. Prospective appraisal of complaints of adverse reactions to foods in children during the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics. 1987;79:683–688
  6. Host A, Halken S, Jacobsen HP, Eastmann A, Mortensen S, Mygil S. The natural course of cow's milk protein allergy/intolerance. [abstract] J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;99(suppl):S490
  7. Hourihane JO'B, Roberts SA, Warner JO. Resolution of peanut allergy: case-control study. BMJ. 1998;316:1271–1275
  8. Skolnick HS, Conover-Walker MK, Koerner CB, Sampson HA, Burks W, Wood RA. The natural history of peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:367–374
  9. Grundy J, Bateman BJ, Gant C, Matthews SM, Dean TP, Arshad S. Peanut allergy in three year old children—a population based study. [abstract] J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(suppl):S231
  10. Sicherer SH, Munoz-Furlong A, Sampson HA. Prevalence of peanut and tree nut allergy in the United States determined by means of a random digit dial telephone survey: a 5-year follow-up study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:1203–1207
  11. Eigenmann PA, Sicherer SH, Borkowski TA, Cohen BD, Sampson HA. Prevalence of IgE-mediated food allergy among children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics. 1998;101:e8
  12. Novembre E, de Martino M, Vierucci A. Foods and respiratory allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1988;81:1059–1065
  13. Mayer L. Mucosal immunity. Pediatr. 2003;11:1595–1600
  14. Weaver LT, Laker MF, Nelson R, Lucas A. Milk feeding and changes in intestinal permeability and morphology in the newborn. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1987;6:351–358
  15. Husby S, Foged N, Host A, Svehag SE. Passage of dietary antigens into the blood of children with coeliac disease. Quantification and size distribution of absorbed antigens. Gut. 1987;28:1062–1072
  16. Brunner M, Walzer M. Absorption of undigested proteins in human beings: the absorption of unaltered fish protein in adults. Arch Intern Med. 1928;42:173–179
  17. Walzer M. Absorption of allergens. J Allergy. 1942;13:554–562
  18. Walzer M. Allergy of the abdominal organs. J Lab Clin Med. 1941;26:1867–1877
  19. Husby S, Mestecky J, Moldoveanu Z, Holland S, Elson CO. Oral tolerance in humans. T cell but not B cell tolerance after antigen feeding. J Immunol. 1994;152:4663–4670
  20. Husby S. Normal immune responses to ingested foods. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(suppl):S13–S19
  21. Mowat AM. Anatomical basis of tolerance and immunity to intestinal antigens. Nat Rev Immunol. 2003;3:331–441
  22. Mayer L. Mucosal immunity and gastrointestinal antigen processing. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(suppl):S4–S12
  23. Sudo N, Sawamura S, Tanaka K, Aiba Y, Kubo C, Koga Y. The requirement of intestinal bacterial flora for the development of an IgE production system fully susceptible to oral tolerance induction. J Immunol. 1997;159:1739–1745
  24. Rautava S, Kalliomaki M, Isolauri E. Probiotics during pregnancy and breast-feeding might confer immunomodulatory protection against atopic disease in the infant. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109:119–121
  25. Kalliomaki M, Salminen S, Arvilommi H, Arvillomi H, Isolauri E. Probiotics and prevention of atopic disease: 4-year follow-up of a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;361:1869–1871
  26. Hill DJ, Hosking CS, Heine RG. Clinical spectrum of food allergy in children in Australia and South-East Asia: identification and targets for treatment. Ann Med. 1999;31:272–281
  27. Maleki SJ, Chung SY, Champagne ET, Raufman JP. The effects of roasting on the allergenic properties of peanut proteins. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106:763–768
  28. Beyer K, Morrow E, Li XM, Bardina L, Bannon GA, Burks AW, et al.  Effects of cooking methods on peanut allergenicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:1077–1081
  29. Maleki SJ, Viquez OM, Jacks T, Champagne ET, Chung SY, Landry SJ. The major peanut allergen, Ara h 2, functions as a trypsin inhibitor, and roasting enhances this function. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:190–195
  30. Chung SY, Butts CL, Maleki SJ, Champagne E. Linking peanut allergenicity to the processes of maturation, curing, and roasting. J Agric Food Chem. 2003;51:4273–4277
  31. Dalal I, Binson I, Reifen R, Amitai Z, Shohat T, Rahmani S, et al.  Food allergy is a matter of geography after all: sesame as a major cause of severe IgE-mediated food allergic reactions among infants and young children in Israel. Allergy. 2002;57:362–365
  32. Breiteneder H, Ebner C. Molecular and biochemical classification of plant-derived food allergens. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106:27–36
  33. Breiteneder H, Radauer C. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113:821–830
  34. Sicherer SH, Furlong TJ, Maes HH, Desnick RJ, Sampson HA, Gelb BD. Genetics of peanut allergy: a twin study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106:53–56
  35. Sampson HA, Sicherer SH, Birnbaum AH. AGA technical review on the evaluation of food allergy in gastrointestinal disorders. American Gastroenterological Association. Gastroenterology. 2001;120:1026–1040
  36. Rothenberg ME, Mishra A, Collins MH, Putnam PE. Pathogenesis and clinical features of eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:891–894
  37. Kelly KJ, Lazenby AJ, Rowe PC, Yardley JH, Perman JA, Sampson HA. Eosinophilic esophagitis attributed to gastroesophageal reflux: improvement with an amino-acid based formula. Gastroenterology. 1995;109:1503–1512
  38. Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Di Lorenzo C, Putnam PE, Sigurdsson L, Kocoshis SA. The spectrum of pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis beyond infancy: a clinical series of 30 children. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:1422–1430
  39. Khan S, Orenstein SR, DiLorenzo C, Kocoshis SA, Putnam PE, Sigurdsson L, et al.  Eosinophilic esophagitis: strictures, impactions, dysphagia. Dig Dis Sci. 2003;48:22–29
  40. Liacouras CA, Markowitz JE. Eosinophilic esophagitis: a subset of eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 1999;1:253–258
  41. Ruchelli E, Wenner W, Voytek T, Brown K, Liacouras C. Severity of esophageal eosinophilia predicts response to conventional gastroesophageal reflux therapy. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 1999;2:15–18
  42. Potter JW, Saeian K, Staff D, Massey BT, Komorowski RA, Shaker R, et al.  Eosinophilic esophagitis in adults: an emerging problem with unique esophageal features. Gastrointest Endosc. 2004;59:355–361
  43. Rothenberg ME. Eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (EGID). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113:11–28
  44. Mishra A, Rothenberg ME. Intratracheal IL-13 induces eosinophilic esophagitis by an IL-5, eotaxin-1, and STAT6-dependent mechanism. J Clin Invest. 2003;125:1419–1427
  45. Li XM, Schofield B, Huang MS, Kleiner GA, Sampson HA. A murine model of IgE-mediated cow's milk hypersensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103:206–214
  46. Li XM, Serebrisky D, Lee SY, Huang CK, Bardina L, Schofield BH, et al.  A murine model of peanut anaphylaxis: T- and B-cell responses to a major peanut allergen mimic human responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106:150–158
  47. Untersmayr E, Scholl I, Swpbpda I, Beil WJ, Forster-Waldl E, Walter F, et al.  Antacid medication inhibits digestion of dietary proteins and causes food allergy: a fish allergy model in BALB/c mice. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:616–623
  48. Snyder JD, Rosenblum N, Wershil B, Goldman M, Winter HS. Pyloric stenosis and eosinophilic gastroenteritis in infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1987;6:543–547
  49. Moon A, Kleinman R. Allergic gastroenteropathy in children. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1995;74:5–12
  50. Kelly KJ. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(suppl):S28–S35
  51. Jaffe J, James S, Mullins G, Braun-Elwert L, Lubensky I, Metcalfe D. Evidence for an abnormal profile of interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and gamma interferon in peripheral blood T cells from patients with allergic eosinophilic gastroenteritis. J Clin Immunol. 1994;14:299–309
  52. Beyer K, Castro R, Birnbaum A, Benkov K, Pittman N, Sampson HA. Human milk-specific mucosal lymphocytes of the gastrointestinal tract display a TH2 cytokine profile. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109:707–713
  53. Lake AM. Food-induced eosinophilic proctocolitis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(suppl):S58–S60
  54. Machida H, Smith A, Gall D, Trevenen C, Scott RB. Allergic colitis in infancy: clinical and pathologic aspects. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1994;19:22–26
  55. Sicherer SH, Eigenmann PA, Sampson HA. Clinical features of food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome. J Pediatr. 1998;55:214–219
  56. Nowak-Wegrzyn A, Sampson HA, Wood RA, Sicherer SH. Food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome caused by solid food proteins. Pediatrics. 2003;111:829–835
  57. Powell G. Food protein-induced enterocolitis of infancy: differential diagnosis and management. Comp Ther. 1986;12:28–37
  58. Dupont C, Heyman M. Food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome: laboratory perspectives. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(suppl):S50–S57
  59. Savilahti E. Food-induced malabsorption syndromes. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(suppl):S61–S66
  60. Sollid LM, Thorsby E. HLA susceptibility genes in celiac disease: genetic mapping and role in pathogenesis. Gastroenterology. 1993;105:910–922
  61. Hill DJ, Hosking CS. Infantile colic and food hypersensitivity. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(suppl):S67–S76
  62. Greaves MW. Chronic urticaria. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;105:664–672
  63. Champion R, Roberts S, Carpenter R, Roger J. Urticaria and angioedema: a review of 554 patients. Br J Dermatol. 1969;81:588–597
  64. Sampson HA, Sicherer SH. Eczema and food hypersensitivity. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 1999;19:495–518
  65. Bieber T, Kraft S, Jugeng M, Strobel I, Haberstok J, Tomov H, et al.  New insights in the structure and biology of the high affinity receptor for IgE (Fc episilon RI) on human epidermal Langerhans cells. J Dermatol Sci. 1996;13:71–75
  66. Li XM, Kleiner GA, Huang CK, Lee SY, Schofield BH, Soter NA, et al.  Murine model of atopic dermatitis associated with food hypersensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:693–702
  67. Reekers R, Beyer K, Niggemann B, Wahn U, Freidhorst J, Kapp A, et al.  The role of circulating food antigen-specific lymphocytes in food allergic children with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 1996;135:935–941
  68. Judd L. A descriptive study of occupational skin disease. N Z Med J. 1994;107:147–149
  69. Nicolas ME, Krause PK, Gibson LE, Murray JA. Dermatitis herpetiformis. Int J Dermatol. 2003;42:588–600
  70. James JM, Bernhisel-Broadbent J, Sampson HA. Respiratory reactions provoked by double-blind food challenges in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:59–64
  71. James JM, Eigenmann PA, Eggleston PA, Sampson HA. Airway reactivity changes in food-allergic, asthmatic children undergoing double-blind placebo-controlled food challenges. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;153:597–603
  72. Roberts G, Patel N, Levi-Schaffer F, Habibi P, Lack G. Food allergy as a risk factor for life-threatening asthma in childhood: a case-controlled study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:168–174
  73. Crespo JF, Pascual C, Dominguez C, Ojeda I, Munoz FM, Estaban MM. Allergic reactions associated with airborne fish particles in IgE-mediated fish hypersensitive patients. Allergy. 1995;50:257–261
  74. Roberts G, Golder N, Lack G. Bronchial challenges with aerosolized food in asthmatic, food-allergic children. Allergy. 2002;57:713–717
  75. Roberts G, Lack G. Relevance of inhalational exposure to food allergens. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;3:211–215
  76. Sicherer SH, Furlong TJ, DeSimone J, Sampson HA. Self-reported allergic reactions to peanut on commercial airliners. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104:186–189
  77. Simonte SJ, Ma S, Mofidi S, Sicherer SH. Relevance of casual contact with peanut butter in children with peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:180–182
  78. Lee SK, Kniker WT, Cook CD, Heiner DC. Cow's milk-induced pulmonary disease in children. Adv Pediatr. 1978;25:39–57
  79. Bock SA, Munoz-Furlong A, Sampson HA. Fatalities due to anaphylactic reactions to foods. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:191–193
  80. Mullins RJ. Anaphylaxis: risk factors for recurrence. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33:1033–1040
  81. Pumphrey RS. Lessons for management of anaphylaxis from a study of fatal reactions. Clin Exp Allergy. 2000;30:1144–1150
  82. Sampson HA, Mendelson LM, Rosen JP. Fatal and near-fatal anaphylactic reactions to food in children and adolescents. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:380–384
  83. Lin RY, Schwartz LB, Curry A, Pesola GR, Knight RJ, Lee HS, et al.  Histamine and tryptase levels in patients with acute allergic reactions: an emergency department-based study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;106:65–71
  84. Varjonen E, Vainio E, Kalimo K. Life-threatening, recurrent anaphylaxis caused by allergy to gliadin and exercise. Clin Exp Allergy. 1997;27:162–166
  85. Horan R, Sheffer A. Food-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 1991;11:757–766
  86. Palosuo K, Alenius H, Varjonen E, Koivuluhta M, Mikkola J, Keskinen H, et al.  A novel wheat gliadin as a cause of exercise-induced anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;103:912–917
  87. Palosuo K, Alenius H, Varjonen E, Kalkkinen N, Reunala T. Rye gamma-70 and gamma-35 secalins and barley gamma-3 hordein cross- react with omega-5 gliadin, a major allergen in wheat-dependent, exercise-induced anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31:466–473
  88. Palosuo K, Varjonen E, Nurkkala J, Kalkkinen N, Harvima R, Reunala T, et al.  Transglutaminase-mediated cross-linking of a peptic fraction of omega-5 gliadin enhances IgE reactivity in wheat-dependent, exercise-induced anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111:1386–1392
  89. Sicherer SH. Food allergy. Lancet. 2002;360:701–710
  90. Sampson HA. Food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immun. 2003;111(suppl):S540–s547
  91. Hill DJ, Hosking CS, Reyes-Benito LV. Reducing the need for food allergen challenges in young children: a comparison of in vitro with in vivo tests. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31:1031–1035
  92. Ortolani C, Ispano M, Pastorello EA, Ansaloni R, Magri GC. Comparison of results of skin prick tests (with fresh foods and commercial food extracts) and RAST in 100 patients with oral allergy syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1989;83:683–690
  93. Niggemann B, Reibel S, Roehr CC, Felger D, Ziegert M, Sommerfeld C, et al.  Predictors of positive food challenge outcome in non-IgE-mediated reactions to food in children with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:1053–1058
  94. Jarvinen KM, Turpeinen M, Suomalainen H. Concurrent cereal allergy in children with cow's milk allergy manifested with atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2003;33:1060–1066
  95. Roehr CC, Reibel S, Ziegert M, Sommerfeld C, Wahn U, Niggemann B. Atopy patch tests, together with determination of specific IgE levels, reduce the need for oral food challenges in children with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:548–553
  96. Niggemann B. Atopy patch test (APT)—its role in diagnosis of food allergy in atopic dermatitis. Indian J Pediatr. 2002;69:57–59
  97. Spergel JM, Beausoleil JL, Mascarenhas M, Liacouras CA. The use of skin prick tests and patch tests to identify causative foods in eosinophilic esophagitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109:363–368
  98. Turjanmaa K. “Atopy patch tests” in the diagnosis of delayed food hypersensitivity. Allerg Immunol (Paris). 2002;34:95–97
  99. Klas PA, Corey G, Storrs FJ, Chan SC, Hanifin JM. Allergic and irritant patch test reactions and atopic disease. Contact Dermatitis. 1996;34:121–124
  100. Sampson H, Ho D. Relationship between food-specific IgE concentration and the risk of positive food challenges in children and adolescents. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;100:444–451
  101. Sampson HA. Utility of food-specific IgE concentrations in predicting symptomatic food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:891–896
  102. Garcia-Ara C, Boyano-Martinez T, Diaz-Pena JM, Martin-Munoz F, Reche-Frutos M, Martin-Esteban M. Specific IgE levels in the diagnosis of immediate hypersensitivity to cows' milk protein in the infant. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:185–190
  103. Boyano MT, Garcia-Ara C, Diaz-Pena JM, Munoz FM, Garcia SG, Esteban MM. Validity of specific IgE antibodies in children with egg allergy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31:1464–1469
  104. Cooke SK, Sampson HA. Allergenic properties of ovomucoid. J Immunol. 1997;159:2026–2032
  105. Burks AW, Shin D, Cockrell G, Stanley JS, Helm RM, Bannon GA. Mapping and mutational analysis of the IgE-binding epitopes on Ara h 1, a legume vicilin protein and a major allergen in peanut hypersensitivity. Eur J Biochem. 1997;245:334–339
  106. Rabjohn P, Helm R, Stanley J, West C, Sampson HA, Burks AW, et al.  Molecular cloning and epitope analysis of the peanut allergen, Ara h3. J Clin Invest. 1999;103:535–542
  107. Chatchatee P, Jarvinen KM, Bardina L, Beyer K, Sampson HA. Identification of IgE- and IgG-binding epitopes on alpha(s1)-casein: differences in patients with persistent and transient cow's milk allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:379–383
  108. Chatchatee P, Jarvinen KM, Bardina L, Vila L, Beyer K, Sampson HA. Identification of IgE and IgG binding epitopes on B- and k-casein in cow's milk allergic patients. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31:1256–1262
  109. Jarvinen KM, Chatchatee P, Bardina L, Beyer K, Sampson HA. IgE and IgG binding epitopes on alpha-lactalbumin and beta- lactoglobulin in cow's milk allergy. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2001;126:111–118
  110. Ayuso R, Reese G, Lehrer SB, Plante M. Molecular basis of arthropod cross-reactivity: IgE-binding cross-reactive epitopes of shrimp, house dust mite and cockroach tropomyosins. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2002;129:38–48
  111. Urisu A, Ando H, Morita Y, Wada E, Yasaki T, Yamada K, et al.  Allergenic activity of heated and ovomucoid-depleted egg white. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;100:171–176
  112. Yamada K, Urisu A, Kakami M, Koyama H, Tokuda R, Wada E, et al.  IgE-binding activity to enzyme-digested ovomucoid distinguishes between patients with contact urticaria to egg with and without overt symptoms on ingestion. Allergy. 2000;55:565–569
  113. Vila L, Beyer K, Jarvinen KM, Chatchatee P, Bardina L, Sampson HA. Role of conformational and linear epitopes in the achievement of tolerance in cow's milk allergy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31:1599–1606
  114. Jarvinen KM, Beyer K, Vila L, Chatchatee P, Busse PJ, Sampson HA. B-cell epitopes as a screening instrument for persistent cow's milk allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;110:293–297
  115. Beyer K, Ellman-Grunther L, Jarvinen KM, Wood RA, Hourihane JO'B, Sampson HA. Measurement of peptide-specific IgE as an additional tool in identifying patients with clinical reactivity to peanuts. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:202–208
  116. Shreffler WG, Beyer K, Chu THH, Burks AW, Sampson H. Microarray immunoassay: association of clinical history, in vitro IgE function, and heterogeneity of allergenic peanut epitopes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113:776–782
  117. Liacouras C, Markowitz JE. Eosinophilic esophagitis, gastroenteritis, and proctocolitis. In:  Leung DYM,  Sampson HA,  Geha RS,  Szefler SJ editor. Pediatric allergy: principles and practice. St Louis: Mosby; 2003;p. 518–528
  118. Grodzinsky E, Jansson G, Skogh T, Stenhammar L, Falth-Magnusson K. Anti-endomysium and anti-gliadin antibodies as serological markers for coeliac disease in childhood: a clinical study to develop a practical routine. Acta Paediatr. 1995;84:294–298
  119. Dieterich W, Laag E, Schopper H, Volta U, Ferguson A, Gillett H, et al.  Autoantibodies to tissue transglutaminase as predictors of celiac disease. Gastroenterology. 1998;115:1317–1321
  120. Walker-Smith J, Guandalini S, Schmitz J, Schmerling D, Viskorpi J. Revised criteria for diagnosis of coeliac disease. Arch Dis Child. 1990;65:909–911
  121. Metcalfe D, Sampson H. Workshop on experimental methodology for clinical studies of adverse reactions to foods and food additives. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1990;86:421–442
  122. Sampson HA. Diagnosing food allergy. In:  Spector SL editors. Provocation testing in clinical practice. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1995;p. 623–646
  123. Sicherer SH, Morrow EH, Sampson HA. Dose-response in double-blind, placebo-controlled oral food challenges in children with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000;105:582–586
  124. Vlieg-Boerstra BJ, Bijleveld MA, van der Heide S, Beusekamp BJ, Wolt-Plompen SAA, Kukler J, et al.  Development and validation of challenge materials for double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113:341–346
  125. Markowitz JE, Spergel JM, Ruchelli E, Liacouras C. Elemental diet is an effective treatment for eosinophilic esophagitis in children and adolescents. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98:777–782
  126. Sampson HA. Anaphylaxis and emergency treatment. Pediatrics. 2003;111(suppl):1601–1608
  127. Shimamoto SR, Bock SA. Update on the clinical features of food-induced anaphylaxis. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;2:211–216
  128. Simons FE, Chan ES, Gu X, Simons KJ. Epinephrine for the out-of-hospital (first-aid) treatment of anaphylaxis in infants: is the ampule/syringe/needle method practical?. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:1040–1044
  129. Simons FE, Gu X, Silver NA, Simons KJ. EpiPen Jr versus EpiPen in young children weighing 15 to 30 kg at risk for anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109:171–175
  130. Clark S, Bock SA, Gaeta TJ, Brenner BE, Cydulka RK, Camargo CA, et al.  Multicenter study of emergency department visits for food allergies. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113:347–352
  131. Busse PJ, Nowak-Wegrzyn A, Noone SA, Sampson HA, Sicherer SH. Recurrent peanut allergy. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1535–1538
  132. Fleischer DM, Conover-Walker MK, Christie DL, Burks AW, Wood RA. The natural progression of peanut allergy: resolution and the possibility of recurrence. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:12–14
  133. Sicherer SH. Clinical implications of cross-reactive food allergens. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:881–890
  134. Bindslev-Jensen C, Vibits A, Stahl Skov P, Weeke B. Oral allergy syndrome; the effect of astemizole. Allergy. 1991;46:610–613
  135. Vadas P, Perelman B. Activated charcoal forms non-IgE binding complexes with peanut proteins. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:175–179
  136. Simons FER. First-aid treatment of anaphylaxis to food: focus on epinephrine. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113:837–844
  137. Liacouras CA, Wenner WJ, Brown K, Ruchelli E. Primary eosinophilic esophagitis in children: successful treatment with oral corticosteroids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998;26:380–385
  138. Faubion WA, Perrault J, Burgart LJ, Clawson M, Freese DK. Treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis with inhaled corticosteroids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998;348:90–93
  139. Teitelbaum JF, Fox VL, Twarog FJ, Nurko S, Antonioloi D, Gleich G, et al.  Eosinophilic esophagitis in children: immunopathological analysis and response to fluticasone propionate. Gastroenterology. 2002;122:1216–1225
  140. Sampson HA. Immunological approaches to the treatment of food allergy. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2001;12(suppl 14):91–96
  141. Leung DYM, Sampson HA, Yunginger JW, Burks AW, Schneider L, Wortel CH, et al.  Effect of anti-IgE therapy in patients with peanut allergy. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:986–993
  142. Li XM, Zhang TF, Huang CK, Srivastava K, Teper AA, Zhang L, et al.  Food Allergy Herbal Formula-1 (FAHF-1) blocks peanut-induced anaphylaxis in a murine model. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:639–646
  143. Herrmann D, Henzgen M, Frank E, Rudeschko O, Jager L. Effect of hyposensitization for tree pollinosis on associated apple allergy. J Invest Allergol Clin Immunol. 1995;5:259–267
  144. Asero R. Effects of birch pollen-specific immunotherapy on apple allergy in birch pollen-hypersensitive patients. Clin Exp Allergy. 1998;28:1368–1373
  145. Oppenheimer JJ, Nelson HS, Bock SA, Christensen F, Leung DYM. Treatment of peanut allergy with rush immunotherapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1992;90:256–262
  146. Shin D, Compadre CM, Sampson HA, Huang SK, Maleki S, Kopper RA, et al.  Identification and analysis of the critical amino acids and structures necessary for specific IgE binding to Ara h 1, a major peanut allergen. J Biol Chem. 1998;273:13759
  147. Li XM, Srivastava K, Grishin A, Huang CK, Schofield BH, Burks AW, et al.  Persistent protective effect of heat-killed Escherichia coli producing “engineered,” recombinant peanut proteins in a murine model of peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;112:159–167
  148. Marshall JD, Abtahi S, Eiden JJ, Tuck S, Milley R, Haycock F, et al.  Immunostimulatory sequence DNA linked to the Amb a 1 allergen promotes T(H)1 cytokine expression while downregulating T(H)2 cytokine expression in PBMCs from human patients with ragweed allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108:191–197
  149. Horner AA, Raz E. Immunostimulatory sequence oligodeoxynucleotide-based vaccination and immunomodulation: two unique but complementary strategies for the treatment of allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;110:706–712
  150. Zhu D, Kepley C, Zhang M, Zhang K, Saxon A. A novel human immunoglobulin Fc gamma Fc epsilon bifunctional fusion protein inhibits Fc epsilon RI-mediated degranulation. Nat Med. 2002;8:518–521
  151. Kepley C, Zhang K, Zhu D, Saxon A. FcepsilonRI-FcgammaRII coaggregation inhibits IL-16 production from human Langerhans-like dendritic cells. Clin Immunol. 2003;108:89–94
  152. Van Dellen R, Lewis J. Oral administration of cromolyn in a patient with protein-losing enteropathy, food allergy, and eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Mayo Clin Proc. 1994;69:441–444
  153. Attwood SEA, Lewis CJ, Bronder CS, Morris CD, Armstrong GR, Wittam J. Eosinophilic oesophagitis: a novel treatment using montelukast. Gut. 2003;8:1228–1229
  154. Khan S, Orenstein SR. Eosinophilic gastroenteritis: epidemiology, diagnosis and management. Paediatr Drugs. 2002;4:563–570
  155. Garrett JK, Jameson SC, Thomson B, Collins MH, Wagoner LE, Freese DK, et al.  Anti-interleukin-5 (mepolizumab) therapy for hypereosinophilic syndromes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;113:38–42
  156. Friedman NJ, Zeiger RS. Prevention and natural history of food allergy. In:  Leung DYM,  Sampson HA,  Geha RS,  Szefler SJ editor. Pediatric allergy: principles and practice. St Louis: Mosby; 2003;p. 495–509
  157. Gdalevich M, Mimouni D, David M, Mimouni M. Breast-feeding and the onset of atopic dermatitis in childhood: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001;45:520–527
  158. Gdalevich M, Mimouni D, Mimouni M. Breast-feeding and the risk of bronchial asthma in childhood: a systematic review with meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Pediatr. 2001;139:261–266
  159. von Berg A, Koletzko S, Grubl A, Filipiak-Pittroff B, Wichmann HE, Reinhardt D, et al.  The effect of hydrolyzed cow's milk formula for allergy prevention in the first year of life: the German Infant Nutritional Intervention Study, a randomized double-blind trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111:533–540
  160. Osborn DA, Sinn J. Formulas containing hydrolysed protein for prevention of allergy and food intolerance in infants. The Cochrane Library. 2003;1–59

 Disclosure of potential conflict of interest: H. Sampson has consultant arrangements with Seer Pharmaceuticals and receives grants/research support from Pharmacia Diagnostics.

PII: S0091-6749(04)01145-5

doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.03.014

The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
Volume 113, Issue 5 , Pages 805-819 , May 2004